Us naval commanders handbook

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Navy Housing. Contact Navy Housing. Media Resources. Landlords and Property Managers. Minimum Housing Standards. Limits of the Uses of the Submarine. The duration of the operational use of the submarine is limited by e time it can remain at sea fuel, victualling , and by the efficiency of the commander and crew. A part is also played by the nature of the operations mine laying operations, etc. It cannot be assumed that submarines operating in the face of strong enemy counter-pressure will be able to stay long at their allotted positions.

It must be left to the commander to decide when and for how long he judges a break to be necessary shearing off, lying on the bottom, traveling at low depths. The operational speed of submarines engaged in invisible war operations decreases in proportion as enemy counteraction in the deployment of air and sea forces, and by other means, is intensified. It is also affected by the state of the sea, the duration of daylight, and other factors.

Consequently, the speed at which long-distance operations are carried out can only be roughly estimated. If the utmost economy is practiced, the operational speed of small submarines will not exceed 5 to 6 knots; that of medium-sized and large submarines will not be more than 6 to 7 knots. A rough state of the sea restricts the use of submarines as a weapon of war: a as regards the underwater use of torpedoes: as soon as the underwater steering gear can no longer be controlled at periscope depth.

In the case of small submarines, the dividing line will be sea No. If the operations are carried out at a depth of 20 m and less, the loss of the submarine must be reckoned with, once it has been detected.

But in such cases also, as has been demonstrated by the experience gained in wartime, difficult situations due to pursuit by the enemy may well be mastered, if the commander acts cleverly and coolly, and the crew remains steadfast "U 9" in the spring of , "U ," "U " in the spring of Submarines should not in general be used at depths of less than 16 m.

Fundamental Rules for the Underwater Attack. The object of the underwater attack is to discharge a torpedo with the certainty of hitting, but without warning, and at short range.

The shorter the distance between the submarine and the target, the more reliable the assessment of the speed, course, and position of the enemy. The torpedo attack at short range is the most advantageous also because not even important miscalculations affecting the launching of the missile can take effect to any appreciable extent, on account of the short course of the torpedo, and by reason of the fact that any counter-action on the part of the enemy - for example, a change of course evading , if the submarine or the torpedo is spotted - comes too late.

The lower limit of the torpedo attack at close range is defined by the distance needed to set the torpedo on its course at the appropriate depth, and by the safety interval, i. No torpedo attack should, therefore, be carried out at a range under m. Invisibility during the attack is made possible by the judicious, invisible use of the periscope, the surgeless launching of the torpedo, and the absence of bubbles in the track of the torpedo. The efficiency of the sound-locating and ASDIC equipment of the enemy is dependent on the state of the sea, the nature of the water i.

The danger to be anticipated from the sound location and ASDICs of the enemy should not be allowed to prevent the carrying out of a fatal attack at short range. When attacking ships with low and medium speeds, at close range, it ballistically advantageous to fire at an angle of the target of 90, as errors estimating the position will in this case have the least effect, besides which the speed of the enemy can be most accurately gauged in this position.

If the range is longer over 1, m , and the target is traveling at a high rate of speed, an attempt should be made to launch the torpedo at a smaller angle, say, The method of carrying out the attack is based, as long as range finding with subsequent deflection change of bearing measuring keeping the reckoning is not practicable, on the particulars of the enemy characteristics obtained by the viewing method during the preparation of the underwater attack, or on the estimates of the enemy characteristics obtained underwater: position, speed, range.

The estimation of the characteristics of the target from the level of the submarine, and with the aid of the monocular optical system of the periscope, is difficult, and requires continual thorough practice.

The estimation of the position is easiest when the submarine stations itself forward of the beam. If the sun is behind the target, the assessment of the position is difficult. The speed of the enemy can best be calculated from the position forward of the beam. In calculating the speed, attention should be paid to the water at the stern rather than to the sea near the bows, because, if the shape of the bows is narrow pointed , the visible effect of the progress of the ship is often very slight.

In addition, it is more difficult to camouflage the stern i. In estimating the enemy's speed, his course in relation to the direction of the waves, as well as the change of bearing, should be taken into consideration.

Every available opportunity should be taken of practicing range finding i. In estimating ranges, conditions of visibility play an important part. In clear weather, and with the sun behind one's back, the distance is liable to be underestimated, in poor visibility, against the sun, in conditions of twilight dusk and dawn , and by moonlight, to be overestimated.

Favorable conditions for attack. From the enemy ship, the periscope, raised no more than is absolutely necessary, is not to be seen among the reflections of the bright sun in the water; and also a trail of bubbles can not usually be seen until it is too late. The periscope should move with the sea. The waves, coming from behind, always wash over a periscope which is in the right position, that is to say, in a low position; and the splashes and spray water of the periscope are not easily made out.

In addition, the enemy look-out to windward, especially in a strong wind, or in heavy rain, meets with difficulties. As regards the weather side windward , if the wind is moderate, torpedoes discharged from the stern form an exception i.

In a keen wind, however, the windward side is also more favorable for the stern launching of torpedoes, because the enemy, as a matter of course, then keeps a better lookout to leeward, and observation is better.

Unfavorable conditions for attack. According to the qualities efficiency of the underwater steering gear of the boat, this will soon put a limit to the possibilities of underwater attack see Section I, D, No.

It is in a rough sea that an attack in a direction parallel to the waves is more likely to succeed most favorable for the underwater steering of the submarine and the depth course of the torpedo. Exceptions: enemy coming out of a bright sun; conditions of twilight; moonlit nights.

Preparing for the Underwater Attack. General rules for the attack. The attack should be carried out with indomitable resolution and steadfastness, until final success, resulting in the annihilation of the enemy, has been achieved. During the attack, situations often arise which would be a reason for disengaging from the enemy. These moments of doubt, and these temptations, must be conquered. What you have got, you have got.

Do not let such considerations give you the idea of trying to save fuel. Do not attack immediately at random; success cannot be achieved that way.

Keep your head and wait, in order - in daytime, if it is still light enough - to make a second attack by another overhauling maneuver, or in order to attack at night. Consequently, attacks on destroyers and submarines can only be carried out at short range. No single shots; "fan" shooting. Hold out, then; and go near. Firing at close range also makes for greater safety for your own boat. In the neighborhood of its own ships the enemy escort will not at first drop depth charges.

As a matter of principle, every underwater attack should be so prepared and carried out that the launching of torpedoes can take place at the earliest possible moment. Favorable opportunities of attack may be lost by hesitating. If conditions allow, the submarine should therefore go to meet the enemy.

It is wrong to keep ahead of the enemy and wait until he comes into range. The commander must be quick, resolute and versatile, and be guided by circumstances in deciding which method of attack is the most favorable, and will most quickly achieve success. As long as the enemy is in range, the submarine must be in a position to launch a torpedo at any moment, in case the enemy takes counter-measures, by veering, etc.

The commander should never concentrate rigidly and schematically on a certain desired position, and operate with that exclusive object in view.

On account of the low underwater speed of the submarine, a position forward of the beam of the enemy is a necessity when making the underwater attack proper. The initial position for the underwater attack must be the more forward of the enemy's beam, the greater the distance is between the submarine and the enemy. In normal visibility and normal conditions of attack, the submarine should therefore not dive for the underwater attack until it has reached the position 0 in relation to the general course of the enemy.

If the submarine is not already ahead of the enemy's beam when the latter comes in sight, an attempt must be made to reach the required position at top speed on the surface. The most favorable converging course in relation to the enemy when overhauling, is always the course vertical to the sight bearing, as long as the submarine is in a more forward position than abreast of the enemy. In taking up its station forward to the beam of the enemy, the submarine must not endanger its most valuable asset, invisibility.

In daytime, in clear weather, the submarine should not therefore be able to see more of the enemy than just the tops of his masts look-out on the mast, range-finder in the foretop, see Section I, B, No. Attention should be paid to the differences in the conditions of visibility of the various sea areas. Conditions can be encountered in which it is possible to approach much nearer to a surface ship, without immediately being spotted, because the air is not always absolutely clear, and the dip of the horizon is frequently blurred and misty.

In the Atlantic, a submarine can be spotted by the enemy as soon as it is lifted by the swell of the sea - as occasionally happens - even when, for a considerable length of time, the submarine could not previously have been visible from the enemy ship. The overhauling maneuver requires a high degree of tactical ability; its success is the pre-condition of the following underwater attack, and therefore the success of the operation.

As a tactical masterpiece, the overhauling maneuver is therefore the exclusive business of the commander, and its preparation and execution require his unremitting attention.

In fighting its way forward to the position ahead of the beam of the enemy, in borderline conditions of visibility during the day, the submarine is engaged in a long, drawn-out and extremely tiring overhauling operation.

It is an incessant "nibbling at the horizon" [i. These strenuous efforts to overhaul the enemy are continued, in the Atlantic, hour by hour, and can only succeed as a result of indomitable resolution and an unchanging, obstinate refusal to let the enemy escape, even when the submarine finds that progress is very slow. Any change of course on the part of the enemy, or engine trouble, etc. These particulars are almost always more reliable than those obtained underwater. The overhauling maneuver and the attack should not be abandoned even when the bearing shows little movement of the enemy.

Do net let the difficulties wear you down! Whether or not - in view of the low surface and underwater speed of the submarine - an overhauling maneuver in daylight is bound to succeed depends on the speed of the enemy and his position when sighted. If the enemy escort is well forward of the ships, or if the enemy has an air escort, so that the submarine is forced to dive both frequently and prematurely, thus further reducing its already low speed, the overhauling maneuver meets with an additional serious difficulty.

But in this one case also, the submarine commander must show determination, and not yield anything unnecessarily. If the submarine is temporarily forced under the surface by the enemy escort, etc. It should always try to surface again as soon as possible, in order to observe the enemy better and not to lose valuable time without a good reason.

In case of sudden deterioration of visibility, due to squalls of rain, etc. The submarine should submerge again, if improving visibility reveals that it has approached too near to the enemy while unable to see him. Carrying Out the Underwater Attack. The "sparing" use of the periscope see Section I, B, No. It is a mistake to keep the periscope down for any length time when the enemy is near. In that case the submarine is not less visible an during the "sparing" use of the periscope; but it can itself see nothing, and is therefore in greater danger.

Consequently, the submarine should carry out frequent observations of short duration; but, in all circumstances, they should be repeated again and again. The periscope should only be raised when the submarine is traveling at low speed. Before raising the periscope, it is therefore necessary to reduce the speed. Otherwise, if the sea is calm, the wake of the periscope can easily be seen, besides which the periscope of a submarine traveling at speed will cause splashes, and a conspicuous feather ["Wasserfahne"].

If special reasons require that the speed be temporarily increased, for example, in order to reach a position more suitable for launching an attack, the periscope must be lowered until the top of it is at least 1 m under the surface. When the submarine is at the depth for attack, the periscope should not, however, be further lowered to an extent greater than it is absolutely necessary, in order not unnecessarily to lose time in raising it again.

In a calm sea, the screw of the submarine causes a slight ripple which is visible on the surface. If it is necessary in this case to proceed at speed, the periscope should therefore be taken down altogether, and the submarine should dive to 18 m, insofar as the position nearness of the enemy will allow this. Towards the end of the attack, just before the torpedo is launched, it must suffice for the torpedo aimer "T. For computing the range, the 1 magnification should be used in the periscope.

With the 6-fold magnification, no estimation of distance is possible, on account of the monocular optical system of the periscope. As a matter of principles the 6-fold magnification of the periscope should always only be used temporarily, in order the better to observe details of the enemy ship, as, for example, in computing its course and speed, but never for the actual attack at close range.

At a distance of about 4, to 2, m, according to the speed and position of the enemy, the submarine begins to go in for the attack. The following rule of thumb serves to determine, in good time, the distance of the submarine When about launch the attack, torpedo abreast of the enemy. The danger of being located by sound location during the attack at close range must be countered, as far as circumstances allow, by traveling at as slow a speed as possible, and by absolute silence on board the submarine see Section I, B, II and III.

The underwater attack is also practicable at dawn and dusk, and on moonlit nights. In these cases, the following points should be observed: a Complete blacking out of the conning tower and the control room is necessary, as otherwise the light is still reflected, to a considerable extent, in the periscope.

The submarine may easily be nearer to the enemy than is supposed. The rare opportunity of attacking an enemy concentration of ships must be used, by going all out, with all the torpedoes, even in spite of the strongest enemy escort.

One of the ships of the concentration should be attacked, and the attack carried out, by a method suited to the position of the target, in a manner calculated to annihilate the latter; immediately afterwards a second and third ships should be attacked where possible. The shape of a concentration of ships is difficult to make out from periscope depth, and at a distance.

If the enemy group is a broad one blunt formation, line abreast, double line ahead, broken formation it is advantageous to let one's self run into the formation from the front, and to fire torpedoes from an angle. The advantages of this position in the enemy group are: less efficient covering and less vigilance on the part of the enemy, and consequently maximum deliberation in carrying out the attack. In attacking a pointed formation, the open side is more favorable, because the chances of a hit are better the targets overlap.

In addition, on the open side the submarine is in less danger of being rammed, and can therefore carry out the attack with more deliberation. If, during an attack on a convoy, the necessity arises of diving suddenly to a depth of 20 m, as a protection against escorting ships or air attack i. In view of the fact that, when traveling at the depth of 20 m, the submarine loses count of the position in the direction of the attack, it may then in certain circumstances be advisable to turn away from the convoy, at full speed, and turn down again with little divergence from the general course of the enemy, in order to resume the attack from the outside.

If the convoy is a long one, there is then always a chance of getting in a shot at the last ships. Methods of Attack; Underwater Discharging of Torpedoes.

The ordinary underwater attack is carried out with the aid of the fire control system, at maximum range. If the entire fire control system fails to function, and in the case of unexplained misses, the bow torpedo attack proper is called for. These methods of attack must also be mastered by the submarine commander, and used according to circumstances.

Maximum Range Attack. Advantages of the maximum range attack. The only necessity is to get the target into the angle covered by the torpedoes with the minimum firing range. The important difficulty of the maximum range torpedo attack - and this also applies to every angle attack - is the accurate computation of the distance as a basis for the improvement of the convergence.

In case of uncertainty in assessing the distance, more especially in firing at close range, and during engagements en passant , one should therefore always endeavor to fire at as small an angle as possible, in order to avoid missing as a result of false convergence values. If the angle is large, a false calculation of distance, especially of distances under 1, m, results in materially wrong measurements on the target, due to the error of convergence.

In view of the fact that the maximum range attack, when carried out underwater, unlike the bow attack proper, requires complicated technical equipment with a comparatively large personnel, so that the number of possible sources of error is correspondingly greater, careful training of all the operators, and close attention to the equipment, are a special necessity.

If the electric system of the fire control is out of action do not at once fall back on the primitive methods of the bow, stern or angle attack, but use to the full the reserve possibilities of the plant predictor as a mechanical firing angle computer. There should be frequent rehearsals of the procedure to be applied when the electric system of the fire control is out of action. Bow Torpedo Attack Proper. Procedure: a Determine the enemy's course by position and bearing; b Compute the enemy's speed; c Ascertain the director angle for the required firing position; d put the submarine on the course for the attack;.

If it is intended to attack from a narrower angle, the bearing in the position to be taken up when discharging the torpedo should be set for calculating the course for the attack, instead of the diagonal bearing of the target. In doing is, constant observation of the growth of the enemy's bearing and constantly repeated computations of the distance, while using the periscope sparingly, are a necessity.

If this does not happen, the moment of firing must be anticipated or retarded, by discharging the torpedo while turning toward, or away from, the target, in order to exploit a more favorable enemy position. The Stern Torpedo Attack Proper. The stern torpedo attack proper can only be carried out either when the position of the submarine is to the right, ahead of the enemy, or when, in consequence of a sudden change of course on the part of the enemy, the use of the stern torpedo tube is more advantageous than the use of the bow torpedo tubes.

Procedure: a If the submarine is ahead of the enemy, it must go to meet him, in order to carry out the stern torpedo attack. Moving toward the enemy is better than moving with him, because, in this case, the submarine, in turning away to take up the direction of attack, has less turning to do to the extent of the double the D.

The change of course should be effected according to the speed at which the enemy is approaching. Do not turn too quickly, as otherwise the range becomes too long. Keep your head. Angled Attack. The angled attack has the following important advantages: a The submarine is able to move more freely in carrying out the attack, and need not, as it has to do when making a bow attack proper, approach the enemy almost "end on," keeping the enemy's position, and the distance, under constant observation.

The angled attack consists mainly of: 1. The commander can make use of other methods of angled attack, if 14 is. Method of carrying out the attack: a Set the submarine on the, course.

Engagement en passant bows of the submarine in the, opposite direction to the course of the enemy :. For narrower positions, the procedure in calculating the course direction of the attack is the same as has been described in dealing with the other methods of attack, previously mentioned.

It is very difficult to estimate the D. When attacking from a narrower position, the direction of attack course is calculated in the same way as in the methods of attack previously indicated; i. The chief difficulty of the maximum range torpedo attack - and this also applies to every angled attack - is the precise calculation of the distance as a basis for the improvement of the convergence. In case of uncertainty in estimating the distance range , more especially in launching torpedoes at close range, and during engagements en passant , the object to be achieved is always to fire at the minimum angle, in order to avoid misses resulting from false convergence values.

If the angle is large, a false estimation of distance, especially of distances under 1, m, results in materially wrong measurements on the target, due to the error of convergence. Free E. Use Expenditure of Torpedoes. As far as the supply of torpedoes allows, several shots, in the form of multiple discharges double or three-fold discharges should be directed against worthwhile targets, even at short range, and when the data calculations are not in doubt. In this case, all the torpedoes should hit the mark, in order to ensure the annihilation of the enemy.

This means that the torpedoes should be fired at different parts of the target. If the range is over 1, m, or if there is uncertainty as regards the aiming data high speed of the enemy, several torpedoes 2, 3, or 4 should be released on the "fan" pattern. The idea is to make sure of one hit. It is better to score only one hit than to miss the target with each of several consecutive shots.

The target should therefore be covered by aiming at the boundaries a the area of dispersion on the target; i. If a final shot is necessary to sink the damaged ship, remember that the number of misses at the kill is proportionally greater than in firing during the attack. When the alteration of steering has been measured, the speed of the target should be set on the director angle computer, or the enemy should be finished off by the bow or stern torpedo attack proper.

The speed of the enemy should be taken into account in determining the displacement of the marking point on the target. On moonlit nights and during the daytime, submerge once more and attack underwater at to m.

Many ships sink only after 2 to 3 hours. See also No. Free F. What to do After the Underwater Attack. If at all possible, the submarine should remain at periscope depth, in order to carry out observations after the underwater attack, and of deciding whether another torpedo is needed to complete the destruction of the enemy.

Motto: "Better to destroy little than to damage much! Exploit the position for attack taken up near the convoy, or in the vicinity of several objectives, for the purpose of discharging several torpedoes in quick succession at several targets, making use of the possibilities of the fire control system.

It is not certain that so favorable a position for attack will again be attained. See No. If the submarine remains at periscope depth after the attack, it will have the advantage of being able to observe the methods and extent of the enemy counteraction, besides finding fresh opportunities of attack. In this way the submarine is also enabled to discover gaps in the pursuing forces of the enemy, through which it can escape.

If there is no further possibility of attack, the submarine should leave the scene of action. If there is a danger of pursuit by sound location, the submarine should then travel at "sound location speed.

Do not go deep down unless it is absolutely necessary. If you do so, you render yourself blind and helpless. Consequently, do not dive to low depths unless the danger threatening from enemy covering ships in the immediate neighborhood, is real and imminent. If the submarine is forced to dive after the underwater attack, on account of the dangerous proximity of enemy hunting units, then it should first go down at full speed in a direction leading away from the scene of action and the direction of the torpedo.

During the first confusion on the surface after a torpedo hit, or during the dropping of depth charges, the enemy escort will operate neither with ASDIC nor with sound location. Do not resume the reconnaissance patrol until you have put some distance, horizontally and vertically, between the submarine and the scene of action, where the submarine was sighted by the enemy.

After the boat has dived, and the steering gear has been adapted to the required depth, put everything out of action, listen carefully, in order to find out what the enemy is doing, and act accordingly. Always go down dynamically to a low depth! Flooding is a mistake: The submarine automatically becomes heavier with increasing depth leaking of the stern stuffing boxes and other openings, reduction of volume contraction of the body of the submarine and it may well happen that it drops to a greater depth than is intended.

Consequently in diving to considerable depths, the maximum engine power should be used, and it is even advisable to pump out the boat for example, in the case of Type VII, approximately 1 ton.

In steering the submarine downward to reach the required low depth, the trimming should at first be carried out by boat-hands, if it transpires that the hydroplanes are temporarily not sufficient; trimming with water is not a necessity until the submarine has reached the required depth, and is being steered into it. Care should be exercised in trimming by boat-hands; "all-hands" maneuvers should not be called for unnecessarily, but only in dangerous situations.

Do not go down to an unnecessary depth, as this may also be dangerous: the stern stuffing boxes and other fastenings leak badly, the joints are subject to heavy strain. Always choose the lesser danger, by weighing up the danger from depth charges against the danger of an increased [pressure] eruption of water.

Return to periscope depth only after careful investigation of sound location and ASDIC operations of the enemy. When the submarine is being brought up from a great depth, all the fastenings should be gradually loosened, especially if any of them have been tightened in order to adapt the boat to the depth conditions. Before surfacing after cruising at a great depth, the steering gear should first be adapted to periscope depth, so as to be able to dive again at once after surfacing, in case of an alarm.

Before surfacing, reduce as far as possible any excessive air pressure in the submarine, by means of the pump. After surfacing, before emptying the compressed air cells, the surface of the sea should be carefully but quickly examined from the conning tower see also Section I, B, No. Fundamental Rules for the Night Surface Attack. The surface torpedo attack by the submarine can only be carried out at night.

Conditions affecting the night attack vary considerably. They depend on the sort of enemy one has to deal with, on the enemy escort, on the course and speed of the enemy, on the conditions of visibility and light, on the state of the sea, etc.

The torpedo will therefore be discharged from many different positions, and varying distances, depending on the various speeds and changing course of the submarine, according to whether it is traveling on a straight course, or turning sharply, at the same time evading the enemy cover.

Because of the low speed of the submarine, the commander will therefore, as a general rule, be under the necessity of attacking from the position which offers itself, at the time of encountering the enemy. There are, therefore, no hard and fast rules for the surface night attack. The attack must boat be given up, even when the bearing only moves slowly.

If, in spite of every effort, the attack cannot be carried out in daylight, it must be successfully made during the night. These values are almost always more exact than the values estimated during the attack. Assessment by night i. At night, the submarine should therefore go in as close as possible, so that even serious miscalculations cannot take effect to any great extent, on account of the short course of the torpedo.

Even if the submarine should be sighted during the attack, it must no longer be possible for the enemy to avoid the torpedo.

Inexperienced torpedo-aimers T. The submarine commander should therefore keep his head, and not give a premature firing signal. Do not let yourself be misled by the increasing size of the shadow of the target, and fire too early at too long a range. During the night surface attack, the submarine can: I. Danger of Being Sighted. As a matter of principle, the submarine commander should bear in mind that the submarine is always more difficult to see at night than any surface ship, unless the conditions of light are exceptionally unfavorable.

The reliance of the commander on the invisibility of his boat at night increase with each new experience. Every contrary feeling must be overcome by the consideration that the enemy whom the submarine is attacking, being on the defensive, is in a weaker position, more especially as his lookout, in consequence of land gruelling periods of duty, is in no position to keep as good a watch as the submarine, which, at the moment, is concentrating all its energy and attention on the development of the attack.

The difficulty of detecting the submarine at night on the surface due to its long and low silhouette, since it disappears almost entirely in the water, even including the conning tower. The conning tower can be most easily detected by the enemy, when it rises above the dip of the horizon, from the line of sight of the enemy.

This is the danger zone for the approaching submarine. This multilateral convention prohibits the placement, installation, or stationing of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in earth orbit, on the moon or other celestial bodies, or in outer space.

Suborbital missile systems are not included in this prohibition. The Antarctic Treaty is a multilateral convention designed to ensure that Antarctica, defined to include the area south of 60 [degrees] South Latitude, is used for peaceful purposes only. Ships and aircraft at points of discharging personnel or cargo in Antarctica are subject to international inspection.

Ships and aircraft operating on and over the high seas within the treaty area are not subject to these prohibitions. This treaty is an agreement among the Latin American nations not to introduce nuclear weapons into Latin America.

The treaty does not, however, prohibit Latin American nations from authorizing nuclear-armed ships and aircraft of nonmember nations to visit their ports and airfields or to transit through their territorial seas or airspace. The treaty is not applicable to the power system of any vessel. Protocol I to the treaty is an agreement among non-Latin American nations that exercise international responsibility over territory within the treaty area to abide by the denuclearization provisions of the treaty.

Consequently, the US cannot maintain nuclear weapons in those areas. Protocol I nations retain, however, competence to authorized transits and port visits by ships and aircraft of their own or other armed forces in their Protocol I territories, irrespective of armament of cargo. Protocol II is an agreement among nuclear-armed nations China, France, the USSR, the UK, and the US to respect the denuclearization aims of the treaty, to not use nuclear weapons against Latin American nations party to the treaty, and to refrain from contributing to a violation of the treaty by the Latin American nations.

This multilateral treaty prohibits the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in outer space, and underwater. Underground testing of nuclear weapons is not included within the ban. This multilateral treaty obligates nuclear weapons nations to refrain from transferring nuclear weapons or nuclear weapons technology to non-nuclear-weapons nations, and obligates non-nuclear-weapons nations to refrain from accepting such weapons from nuclear-weapons nations or from manufacturing nuclear weapons themselves.

The treaty does not apply in time of war. The United States and the USSR have concluded a number of bilateral agreements designed to restrain the growth of nuclear warheads and launchers and to reduce the risk of miscalculation that could trigger a nuclear exchange. The United States, the USSR, and most other NATO and Warsaw Pact nations conditioned their adherence to the Gas Protocol on the understanding that the prohibition against use of chemical weapons ceases to be binding with respect to nations whose armed forces, or the armed forces of the allies, fail to respect that prohibition.

The Gas Protocol does not prohibit the development, production, testing, or stockpiling of chemical weapons, nor does it prevent equipping and training military forces for chemical warfare. The United States categorizes chemical weapons under the three headings of lethal and incapacitating agents, riot control agents, and herbicidal agents. United States policy with respect to these three categories is summarized in the following paragraphs.

The United States considers the prohibition against first use of lethal and incapacitating chemical weapons to be part of customary international law and, therefore, binding on all nations whether or not they are parties to the Gas Protocol.

Lethal chemical agents are those asphyxiating, poisonous, or other gases; analogous liquids; or materials that cause immediate death. Incapacitating agents are those producing symptoms that persist for appreciable periods of time after exposure to the agent has terminated. Because the Gas Protocol effectively prohibits only first use of such weapons, the United States maintains a lethal and incapacitating chemical weapons capability for deterrence and possible retaliatory purposes only.

Retaliatory use of lethal or incapacitating chemical agents must be terminated as soon as the enemy use of such agents that prompted the retaliation has ceased and any tactical advantage gained by the enemy through unlawful first use has been redressed. Riot control agents are those gases, liquids, and analogous substances that are widely used by governments for civil law enforcement purposes. Riot control agents, in all abut the most unusual circumstances, cause merely transient effects that disappear within minutes after exposure to the agent has terminated.

Tear gas and Mace are examples of riot control agents in widespread use by law enforcement officials. The United States considers that use of riot control agents in wartime is not prohibited by the Gas Protocol. However, the United States has formally renounced first use of riot control agents in armed conflict except in defensive military modes to save lives. Examples of authorized used of riot control agents in time of armed conflict include:.

Riot control situations in areas under effective US military control, to include control of rioting prisoners of war. Rescue missions involving downed aircrews or escaping prisoners of war.

Protection of military supply depots, military convoys, and other military activities in rear echelon areas from civil disturbances, terrorist activities, or paramilitary operations. Employment of riot control agents in peacetime may be authorized by the Secretary of Defense, or in limited circumstances, by the commanders of the unified and specified commands.

Examples of authorized use of riot control agents in peacetime include:. Civil disturbances and other law enforcement activities in the United States, its territories, and possessions. On US bases, posts, embassy grounds, and installations overseas for protection and security purposes, including riot control.